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Language

The Mongolian Language: Voice of the Eternal Blue Sky

The Mongolian language is spoken by approximately five million people across Mongolia, parts of Russia, China, and communities in Afghanistan. It belongs to the Mongolic branch of languages, historically associated with the broader Altaic hypothesis.

The most widely spoken variety in Mongolia today is Khalkha (Halh), which forms the basis of the country’s official standard language. Beyond Khalkha, several related Mongolic languages and dialects are spoken across Inner Asia, including:

  • Buryat (in Russia)
  • Kalmyk (in southern Russia)
  • Oirat (Oirot)
  • Chahar
  • Ordos
  • Moghul (historically in Central and South Asia)

These linguistic branches reflect centuries of migration, empire, and cultural exchange across the Eurasian steppe.

The Birth of Mongolian Writing

The written tradition of Mongolian is deeply intertwined with empire-building and cross-cultural contact.

In 1208, after defeating the Naiman tribes of Central Asia, Genghis Khan captured a Uyghur scribe named Tatar-Tonga. He adapted the Old Uyghur script to write Mongolian, creating what became known as the Traditional Mongolian Script, also called:

  • Uyghur Script (in its adapted form)
  • Classical Mongol Script
  • Old Script
  • Mongol Bichig (in Mongolian)

This script would become the literary backbone of the Mongol Empire.

Script Innovation Under the Mongol Empire

As the empire expanded, administrative needs increased.

In the 13th century, Kublai Khan commissioned the Tibetan monk Drogön Chögyal Phagpa to create a universal script for imperial use. The result was the 'Phags-pa script, based on Tibetan writing.

Although innovative, it never achieved widespread adoption. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, it was mainly used to provide phonetic glosses in Chinese texts.

The Soyombo and Later Scripts

In the late 17th century, the monk, artist, and scholar Zanabazar created the Soyombo script, designed to write Mongolian as well as Chinese and Sanskrit. It was primarily used for Buddhist texts and temple inscriptions.

Zanabazar also devised another system called the Mongolian Square Script (Horizontal Square Script), though its exact historical use remains unclear.

In 1567, Ayuush Güüsh refined the traditional script by adding letters to represent Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Chinese loanwords. This adaptation became known as the Galik script, expanding Mongolian’s literary flexibility.

The Shift to Cyrillic

In February 1941, the Mongolian government abolished the traditional script. For a brief period (February–March 1941), a Latin-based alphabet was used. Soon after, Mongolia adopted the Cyrillic alphabet as its official writing system.

Officially, the Latin system was considered inadequate for accurately representing Mongolian sounds. However, many scholars note that the decision to adopt Cyrillic was also politically influenced by Mongolia’s alignment with the Soviet Union.

Today:

  • Mongolia uses a modified Cyrillic alphabet.
  • Literacy rates in Cyrillic are high.
  • The traditional vertical script is taught in schools to a limited extent.
  • It is widely used in artistic, ceremonial, and decorative contexts.
  • In the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, the traditional script remains in active daily use.

Features of the Traditional Mongolian Script

The Traditional Mongolian Script is distinctive and visually elegant.

Type: Phonemic alphabet (separate letters for consonants and vowels)

Direction:
Written vertically from top to bottom, in columns that progress from left to right — one of the few vertical scripts still in use.

Letter Forms:
Letters change shape depending on:

  • Their position in a word (initial, medial, final)
  • The letters that follow them

Teaching Method:
Traditionally taught as syllables rather than isolated letters.

Numerals and Punctuation

Mongolian numerals exist in both classical and modern forms. The traditional punctuation system also differs from modern Cyrillic punctuation practices, reflecting the script’s vertical orientation and unique stylistic heritage.

A Living Cultural Identity

The story of the Mongolian language is not simply about phonetics or alphabets—it is a reflection of empire, religion, politics, and resilience.

From the conquests of Genghis Khan to the artistic legacy of Zanabazar, from vertical calligraphy flowing like wind across the steppe to modern Cyrillic textbooks in Ulaanbaatar classrooms, the Mongolian language carries the memory of a vast and dynamic civilization.

It stands today as both a practical means of communication and a powerful symbol of national identity.

Here are a few links to websites that may prove useful in learning the Mongolian language:

http://www.lexilogos.com/english/mongolian_dictionary.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mongolian.htm

Mongolian Cyrillic Character Transliteration Utility

The Mongolian Cyrillic Character Transliteration Client is a great freeware tool that can be used to quickly convert text to or from Mongolian Cyrilic Characters. It can be downloaded by following this link.